Circumstantial, Causal, and Concessive Clauses
Table of contents
- Indicative versus Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses
- Circumstantial Clauses
- Causal Clauses
- Concessive Clauses
- cum Clauses
Indicative versus Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses
As discussed in the last unit, certain types of dependent clauses can use either the indicative mood or the subjunctive mood for its verb, depending on the quality of the action in the dependent clause and how it relates to the main clause. This unit considers in more detail three specific kinds of dependent clauses than can take either verbal mood, the subordinating conjunctions that can introduce those clauses, and how those conjunctions often dictate which mood of the verb should follow.
Circumstantial Clauses
Circumstantial clauses, as the name implies, explain the circumstances around the action of the main verb. In translation, they look similar to temporal clauses (from tempus, tempōris, n. - time) that explain when the action of the main verb happens. Consider the following example:
- The horses sat under the tree after they had been led out of the fields.
If we consider “after they had been led out of the fields” to be a temporal clause, that means that the clause is concerned with time, such that the “when/after” clause provides a point or range of time on a clock for the action of the main verb: the action of sitting happened at a point in time after the action of being led happened.
On the other hand, if we consider the “after” clause to be a circumstantial clause, that means that the clause gives some backstory or context to the action of the main verb: the action of sitting happened with the context of the horses having been led there.
The distinction is granular and, in fact, a non-issue in actual English translation, since temporal clauses and circumstantial clauses both use the conjunction “when/after.” In Latin, “when/after” is rendered by the conjunction cum, but the difference between temporal and circumstantial is the use of the indicative mood to follow cum in a temporal clause and the use of the subjunctive mood to follow cum in a circumstantial clause. Note the following examples:
- equī sub arbōre sēdērunt cum ex agrīs ductī erant.
- equī sub arbōre sēdērunt cum ex agrīs ductī essent.
Both of these sentences are translated exactly the same (“The horses sat under the tree after they had been led out of the fields”), and the use of the indicative versus the subjunctive serves to illustrate how the speaker considers the dependent clause’s action, whether it’s giving a specific moment in time (temporal clause, thus indicative mood) or backstory/context to the action of the main verb (circumstantial clause, thus subjunctive mood).
Causal Clauses
Also as indicated in the previous unit, another example of a dependent clause that can take either the indicative mood or the subjunctive mood is a causal clause, which explains the reason behind the action of the main verb. The mood of the dependent verb indicates something about who believes in the reason being offered in the dependent clause for the main verb’s action:
- The indicative mood means that the reason being offered by the causal clause is factual or an opinion held by the speaker.
- The subjunctive mood means that the reason being offered by the causal clause is in doubt or an opinion held by someone other than the speaker.
In addition to the conjunction quod/quia, other conjunctions can introduce a “because” clause, like:
- quoniam (+ indicative or subjunctive)
- cum (+ subjunctive only)
Note how cum in this use can mean “because”, but only if it’s followed by a subjunctive verb. If it’s followed by an indicative verb, it is being used in a temporal clause and means “when/after.” More on the various uses of cum as a conjunction at the end of this unit.
For example:
- cīvēs in urbem cucurrērunt quoniam periculum in viā esset.
- The citizens ran into the city because there was danger in the road.
- cīvēs in urbem cucurrērunt cum periculum in viā esset.
- The citizens ran into the city because there was danger in the road. (cum causal)
- cīvēs in urbem cucurrērunt cum periculum in viā esset.
- The citizens ran into the city when there was danger in the road. (cum circumstantial)
- cīvēs in urbem cucurrērunt cum periculum in viā erat.
- The citizens ran into the city when there was danger in the road. (cum temporal)
Concessive Clauses
A third kind of dependent clause that can take either the indicative or subjunctive mood is a concessive clause, which explains an obstacle that should get in the way of the performance of the main verb; nevertheless, despite that obstacle, the main verb still happens. For example:
- Although the student was sleepy, he nevertheless made it to class on time.
In this sentence, the concessive clause “although the student was sleepy” sets up an obstacle to the action of “making it to class on time” happening. Despite the obstacle, however, that action happens.
The English concessive clause is introduced by the conjunction “although”, “though”, or “even though”. Latin renders that conjunction with a few different words, with specific limitations on verb mood (and sometimes tense) for each:
- quamquam (+ indicative or subjunctive)
- quamvis (+ subjunctive only)
- cum (+ subjunctive only)
- licet (+ present or perfect subjunctive only)
For quamquam, there is no functional difference in meaning between the use of the indicative or the subjunctive.
Thus:
- quamvis pater ridēret, laetus nōn erat.
- Although the father was laughing, he was not happy.
- licet nāvis magna sit, puellae eam nōn vident.
- Even though the ship is large, the girls do not see it.
In addition to the conjunction that marks the concessive clause, there can also be an adverb that appears in the main clause that signals the presence of a concessive clause in the sentence:
- tamen - “nevertheless”, “still”
The presence of tamen in a main clause can help you determine what type of dependent clause is in a sentence, particularly if the conjunction used can mean multiple things, like cum. For example:
- cum mīles epistulam mīsisset, mater eam tamen nōn recēpit.
- Although the soldier had sent the letter, his mother nevertheless did not receive it.
cum Clauses
On the note of the various meanings of cum, see the following example:
- cum agricola equōs videat, cībum eīs nōn dat.
The cum clause in this sentence takes the subjunctive verb videat, but as we’ve seen, cum + the subjunctive can signal a circumstantial, causal, or concessive clause, such that any of the following three translations is technically correct:
- When the farmer sees the horses, he does not give them food. (circumstantial)
- Because the farmer sees the horses, he does not give them food. (causal)
- Although the farmer sees the horses, he does not give them food. (concessive)
Often, the context around the sentence in question will help you figure out which option makes the most sense, in the absence of other clear clues like a tamen in the main clause. In this example above, to my (Prof. Libatique’s) mind, the concessive translation makes the most sense: you might expect a farmer to give food to horses when he sees them, but he doesn’t do so. Causal is less plausible: why would seeing the horses be a reason why the farmer doesn’t give them food? Circumstantial is possible: perhaps the farmer seeing the horses is just given as background information to the action of not giving them food. You’re empowered to use your own logic skills and common sense to try out the different options and see what makes the most sense!